بحوث بالانجليزي

[بحرينيه كوول]

Air Pollution



Indoor & Outdoor

Air Pollution

When people think about air pollution, they usually think about smog, acid rain, CFC's, and other forms of outdoor air pollution. But did you know that air pollution also can exist inside homes and other buildings? It can, and every year, the health of many people is affected by chemical substances present in the air within buildings.
A great deal of research on pollution is being conducted at laboratories and universities. The goals of the research are to find solutions and to educate the public about the problem. Two places where this type of work is being done are LBNL and the University of California, Berkeley.
Let's take a closer look at the various types of air pollution, the effects that they have on people, and what is being (or not being) done to correct the problem.
What is Air Pollution?
Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
There are several main types of pollution and well-known effects of pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.
One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter . The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quanitites of soot into the air.
Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.
Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking. In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so our exposure to harmful indoor pollutants can be serious. It is therefore important to consider both indoor and outdoor air pollution.
Outdoor Air Pollution
Smog is a type of large-scale outdoor pollution. It is caused by chemical reactions between pollutants derived from different sources, primarily automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. Cities are often centers of these types of activities, and many suffer from the effects of smog, especially during the warm months of the year. Additional information about smog and its effects are available from Environment Canada and the Air Quality Management District (AQMD) in southern California.
For each city, the exact causes of pollution may be different. Depending on the geographical location, temperature, wind and weather factors, pollution is dispersed differently. However, sometimes this does not happen and the pollution can build up to dangerous levels. A temperature inversion occurs when air close to the earth is cooler than the air above it. Under these conditions the pollution cannot rise and be dispersed. Cities surrounded by mountains also experience trapping of pollution. Inversion can happen in any season. Winter inversions are likely to cause particulate and cabon monoxide pollution. Summer inversions are more likely to create smog.
Another consequence of outdoor air pollution is acid rain. When a pollutant, such as sulfuric acid combines with droplets of water in the air, the water (or snow) can become acidified . The effects of acid rain on the environment can be very serious. It damages plants by destroying their leaves, it poisons the soil, and it changes the chemistry of lakes and streams. Damage due to acid rain kills trees and harms animals, fish, and other wildlife. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and Environment Canada are among the organizations that are actively studying the acid rain problem.
The Greenhouse Effect, also referred to as global warming, is generally believed to come from the build up of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when fuels are burned. Plants convert carbon dioxide back to oxygen, but the release of carbon dioxide from human activities is higher than the world's plants can process. The situation is made worse since many of the earth's forests are being removed, and plant life is being damaged by acid rain. Thus, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is continuing to increase. This buildup acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface of our earth. Changes of even a few degrees will affect us all through changes in the climate and even the possibility that the polar ice caps may melt. (One of the consequences of polar ice cap melting would be a rise in global sea level, resulting in widespread coastal flooding.) Additional resources and information about the Greenhouse Effect and global warming are available from the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), the Science Education Academy of the Bay Area (SEABA) and the Society of Environmental Journalists (SEJ).
Ozone depletion is another result of pollution. Chemicals released by our activities affect the stratosphere , one of the atmospheric layers surrounding earth. The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) from aerosol cans, cooling systems and refrigerator equipment removes some of the ozone, causing "holes"; to open up in this layer and allowing the radiation to reach the earth. Ultraviolet radiation is known to cause skin cancer and has damaging effects on plants and wildlife. Additional resources and information about the ozone depletion problem are available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Ozone ACTION.
Indoor Air Pollution
Many people spend large portion of time indoors - as much as 80-90% of their lives. We work, study, eat, drink and sleep in enclosed environments where air circulation may be restricted. For these reasons, some experts feel that more people suffer from the effects of indoor air pollution than outdoor pollution.
There are many sources of indoor air pollution. Tobacco smoke, cooking and heating appliances, and vapors from building materials, paints, furniture, etc. cause pollution inside buildings. Radon is a natural radioactive gas released from the earth, and it can be found concentrated in basements in some parts of the United States. Additional information about the radon problem is available from the USGS and the Minnesota Radon Project.
Pollution exposure at home and work is often greater than outdoors. The California Air Resources Board estimates that indoor air pollutant levels are 25-62% greater than outside levels and can pose serious health problems.
Both indoor and outdoor pollution need to be controlled and/or prevented.
How can air pollution hurt my health?
Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.
Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.
Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes.
Research into the health effects of air pollution is ongoing. Medical conditions arising from air pollution can be very expensive. Healthcare costs, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare impacts cost billions of dollars each year.
Additional information on the health effects of air pollution is available from the Natural Resources Defense Council. A short article on the health effects of ozone (a major component of smog) is available from the B.A.A.Q.M.D.

[بحرينيه كوول]

Healthy Food



Make Healthy Food Choices
Fruits, vegetables, grains and legumes tend to be low in fat and have no cholesterol. Most are also good sources of dietary fiber, complex carbohydrates and vitamins. The American Heart Association suggests that you eat foods high in complex carbohydrates and fiber (some kinds of soluble fiber, such as pectin and oat bran, when eaten in large amounts in a diet low in saturated fat, may reduce total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol). The American Heart Association suggests eating 25–30 grams of dietary fiber per day.
Here are some guidelines for healthy eating:
• Coconut is high in saturated fat; olives and avocados are high in monounsaturated fat and calories. Use these items sparingly to avoid getting too many calories from fat.
• When vegetable grains or legumes are cooked or processed into foods, saturated fats or cholesterol are often added. For instance, egg yolks may be added to breads or pastas.
• Canned, processed and preserved vegetables also may contain added sodium. And in some people, too much sodium (salt) can lead to high blood pressure. Some food companies are canning vegetables with less salt. "No salt added" varieties are also available. Look for these in the market or choose fresh or frozen vegetables.
• Nuts and seeds tend to be very high in fat and calories, but most of the fat is polyunsaturated or monounsaturated (e.g., walnuts, almonds, pecans). Some varieties, such as macadamia nuts, are also high in saturated fat, so check the label. Nuts and seeds don’t have cholesterol and are good sources of protein.
Cooking with fats and oils
• Canola, corn, olive, safflower, sesame, soybean and sunflower oils are low in saturated fatty acids. They're good to use in limited amounts for cooking or dressings.
• Peanut oil has slightly more saturated fatty acids. Don't use it as a major cooking oil. You can use it now and then for flavoring.
• Vegetable oils are hydrogenated for use in margarines or shortenings. Hydrogenation may partly offset some of the benefits of using polyunsaturated or monounsaturated vegetable oils.
Cholesterol, fiber and oat bran
Most Americans consume only about half the fiber they need each day. Dietary fiber is the term used for several materials that make up the parts of plants that your body can't digest. Fiber is classified as either soluble or insoluble. When regularly eaten as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, soluble fiber has been shown to help lower blood cholesterol, thus reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. A high-fiber diet may also help reduce the risk of diabetes and colon and rectal cancer. The American Heart Association Eating Plan suggests that you eat foods high in both soluble and insoluble fiber. Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain foods, beans and legumes are all good sources of dietary fiber.
The American Heart Association recommends that you read the labels on all packaged foods, especially commercial oat bran and wheat bran products. Many of these (muffins, chips, waffles) actually contain very little bran. They may also be high in sodium, total fat and saturated fat.
Adding fiber to your diet may be easier than you think. Here are some tips that can help you get started:
• Substitute high-fiber foods (whole-grain bread, brown rice, fruits and vegetables) for low-fiber foods (white bread, white rice, candy and chips).
• Try to eat more raw vegetables and fresh fruit, including the skins when appropriate. Cooking vegetables can reduce their fiber content, and skins are a good source of fiber.
• Eat high-fiber foods at every meal. Bran cereal for breakfast is a good start, but try to include some fruits, vegetables, whole-grains and beans in your diet as well.
• When food isn't enough, you can take a dietary fiber supplement.
• Be sure to increase your fiber intake gradually, giving your body time to adjust, and drink at least six to eight 8-oz. glasses of fluids a day.
Foods high in soluble fiber — These include oat bran, oatmeal, beans, peas, rice bran, barley, citrus fruits, strawberries and apple pulp.
Foods high in insoluble fiber — These include whole-wheat breads, wheat cereals, wheat bran, cabbage, beets, carrots, Brussels sprouts, turnips, cauliflower and apple skin.
What Should You Really Eat?
More than a decade ago, the U.S. Department of Agriculture created a powerful and enduring icon - the Food Guide Pyramid. This simple illustration conveyed in a flash what the USDA said were the elements of a healthy diet. The Pyramid was taught in schools, appeared in countless media articles and brochures, and was plastered on cereal boxes and food labels.
Tragically, the information embodied in this pyramid didn't point the way to healthy eating. Why not? Its blueprint was based on shaky scientific evidence, and it barely changed over the years to reflect major advances in our understanding of the connection between diet and health.
With much fanfare, the USDA recently retired the old Food Guide Pyramid and replaced it with MyPyramid, a new symbol and "interactive food guidance system." The new symbol is basically the old Pyramid turned on its side.
The good news is that this dismantles and buries the flawed Pyramid. The bad news is that the new symbol doesn't convey enough information to help you make informed choices about your diet and long-term health. And it continues to recommend foods that aren't essential to good health, and may even be detrimental in the quantities included in MyPyramid.
As an alternative to the USDA's flawed pyramid, faculty members in the Harvard School of Public Health built the Healthy Eating Pyramid. It resembles the USDA's in shape only. The Healthy Eating Pyramid takes into consideration, and puts into perspective, the wealth of research conducted during the last ten years that has reshaped the definition of healthy eating.
Pyramid Building
In the children's book Who Built the Pyramid?,(1) different people take credit for building the once-grand pyramid of Senwosret. King Senwosret, of course, claims the honor. But so does his architect, the quarry master, the stonecutters, slaves, and the boys who carried water to the workers.
The USDA's MyPyramid also had many builders. Some are obvious - USDA scientists, nutrition experts, staff members, and consultants. Others aren't. Intense lobbying efforts from a variety of food industries also helped shape the pyramid.
In theory, the USDA pyramid should reflect the nutrition advice assembled in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. According to the USDA, the guidelines "provide authoritative advice for people two years and older about how good dietary habits can promote health and reduce risk for major chronic diseases."
This document, which by law must be revised every five years, aims to offer sound nutrition advice that corresponds to the latest scientific research. The panel assembled to create the guidelines usually generates 100 or so pages of dense nutrition-speak. This document is translated into a reader friendly brochure aimed at helping the average person choose a balanced and healthy diet. Of far greater importance, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans set the standards for all federal nutrition programs, including the school lunch program, and helps determine what food products Americans buy. In other words, the guidelines influence how billions of dollars are spent each year. So even minor changes can hurt or help a food industry.
According to federal regulations, the panel that writes the dietary guidelines must include nutrition experts who are leaders in pediatrics, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and public health. Selecting the panelists is no easy task, and is subject to intense lobbying from organizations such as the National Dairy Council, United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association, Soft Drink Association, American Meat Institute, National Cattlemen's Beef Association, and Wheat Foods Council.
Building a Better Pyramid
If the only goal of the Food Guide Pyramid is to give us the best possible advice for healthy eating, then it should be grounded in the evidence and be independent of business.
Instead of waiting for this to happen, nutrition experts from the Harvard School of Public Health created the Healthy Eating Pyramid. It is based on the best available scientific evidence about the links between diet and health. This new pyramid fixes fundamental flaws in the USDA pyramid and offers sound information to help people make better choices about what to eat.
From EAT, DRINK, AND BE HEALTHY by Walter C. Willett, MD
copyright Simon & Schuster 2001.
The Healthy Eating Pyramid sits on a foundation of daily exercise and weight control. Why? These two related elements strongly influence your chances of staying healthy. They also affect what and how you eat and how your food affects you. The other bricks of the Healthy Eating Pyramid include:
• Whole Grain Foods (at most meals). The body needs carbohydrates mainly for energy. The best sources of carbohydrates are whole grains such as oatmeal, whole-wheat bread, and brown rice. They deliver the outer (bran) and inner (germ) layers along with energy-rich starch. The body can't digest whole grains as quickly as it can highly processed carbohydrates such as white flour. This keeps blood sugar and insulin levels from rising, then falling, too quickly. Better control of blood sugar and insulin can keep hunger at bay and may prevent the development of type 2 diabetes.
• Plant Oils. Surprised that the Healthy Eating Pyramid puts some fats near the base, indicating they are okay to eat? Although this recommendation seems to go against conventional wisdom, it's exactly in line with the evidence and with common eating habits. The average American gets one third or more of his or her daily calories from fats, so placing them near the foundation of the pyramid makes sense. Note, though, that it specifically mentions plant oils, not all types of fat. Good sources of healthy unsaturated fats include olive, canola, soy, corn, sunflower, peanut, and other vegetable oils, as well as fatty fish such as salmon. These healthy fats not only improve cholesterol levels (when eaten in place of highly processed carbohydrates) but can also protect the heart from sudden and potentially deadly rhythm problems.(3)
• Vegetables (in abundance) and Fruits (2 to 3 times). A diet rich in fruits and vegetables can decrease the chances of having a heart attack or stroke; protect against a variety of cancers; lower blood pressure; help you avoid the painful intestinal ailment called diverticulitis; guard against cataract and macular degeneration, the major cause of vision loss among people over age 65; and add variety to your diet and wake up your palate.
• Fish, Poultry, and Eggs (0 to 2 times). These are important sources of protein. A wealth of research suggests that eating fish can reduce the risk of heart disease. Chicken and turkey are also good sources of protein and can be low in saturated fat. Eggs, which have long been demonized because they contain fairly high levels of cholesterol, aren't as bad as they're cracked up to be. In fact, an egg is a much better breakfast than a doughnut cooked in an oil rich in trans fats or a bagel made from refined flour.
• Nuts and Legumes (1 to 3 times). Nuts and legumes are excellent sources of protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Legumes include black beans, navy beans, garbanzos, and other beans that are usually sold dried. Many kinds of nuts contain healthy fats, and packages of some varieties (almonds, walnuts, pecans, peanuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios) can now even carry a label saying they're good for your heart.
• Dairy or Calcium Supplement (1 to 2 times). Building bone and keeping it strong takes calcium, vitamin D, exercise, and a whole lot more. Dairy products have traditionally been Americans' main source of calcium. But there are other healthy ways to get calcium than from milk and cheese, which can contain a lot of saturated fat. Three glasses of whole milk, for example, contains as much saturated fat as 13 strips of cooked bacon. If you enjoy dairy foods, try to stick with no-fat or low-fat products. If you don't like dairy products, calcium supplements offer an easy and inexpensive way to get your daily calcium.
• Red Meat and Butter (Use Sparingly): These sit at the top of the Healthy Eating Pyramid because they contain lots of saturated fat. If you eat red meat every day, switching to fish or chicken several times a week can improve cholesterol levels. So can switching from butter to olive oil.
• White Rice, White Bread, Potatoes, Pasta, and Sweets (Use Sparingly): Why are these all-American staples at the top, rather than the bottom, of the Healthy Eating Pyramid? They can cause fast and furious increases in blood sugar that can lead to weight gain, diabetes, heart disease, and other chronic disorders. Whole-grain carbohydrates cause slower, steadier increases in blood sugar that don't overwhelm the body's ability to handle this much needed but potentially dangerous nutrient.
• Multiple Vitamin: A daily multivitamin, multimineral supplement offers a kind of nutritional backup. While it can't in any way replace healthy eating, or make up for unhealthy eating, it can fill in the nutrient holes that may sometimes affect even the most careful eaters. You don't need an expensive name-brand or designer vitamin. A standard, store-brand, RDA-level one is fine. Look for one that meets the requirements of the USP (U.S. Pharmacopeia), an organization that sets standards for drugs and supplements.

[بحرينيه كوول]

The Prophet’s Life in Brief
Birth and Rearing
Muhammad was born in Makkah on Rabi` Awwal 12, 570 CE. His father died before his birth. The infant Muhammad was handed to a Bedouin wet nurse to be brought up by her in the healthy atmosphere of the desert. At the age of five, Muhammad returned to the care of his mother, Aminah bint Wahb, but she died a year later. Muhammad then went to his paternal grandfather, `Abdul Muttalib. He died when Muhammad was eight, and the boy was then brought up by his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of twelve, he accompanied his uncle in a merchant’s caravan to Syria.
As a Young Man
Muhammad was content to work as a shepherd, but his uncle Abu Talib desired something better for him and obtained him employment with a rich widow, Khadijah bint Khuwaylid ibn Asad. Thus Muhammad found himself at the age of 25 in charge of a caravan conveying merchandise to Syria. On his return, Khadijah was so pleased with his successful management of her business and was so attracted by his noble character that she sent her sister to offer the young man Khadijah’s hand. Muhammad had felt drawn to Khadijah, and so matters were soon arranged. Their 26 years of married life were singularly happy. Muhammad continued to work as a merchant. His fairness further enhanced his reputation as “Al-Amin” (The Trustworthy). He continued to take an ever-increasing interest in public affairs and to exert himself in the service of the poor, the helpless, and the weak.
In the Cave
Whenever the iniquities of his people oppressed him, Muhammad retired to the solitude of a cave in Mount Hira’ outside Makkah. There his soul tried to peer into the mysteries of creation, of life and death, of good and evil, to find order out of chaos. Solitude became a passion with him, and every year he would retire to the cave for the whole month of Ramadan to mediate.


First Revelation
It was on one of these occasions, when he was 40 years of age, that Muhammad received the call. One night, while lying absorbed in his thoughts in the solitude of the cave, Muhammad was commanded by a mighty voice to go forth and preach. Muhammad rose trembling and hastened home to seek rest and solace in Khadijah’s tender care, and she calmed and comforted him. She later consulted her kinsman, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. He declared that the heavenly message that had come to Moses had now come to Muhammad, and that he was chosen as a prophet of Allah.
First Converts
Khadijah was the first to accept the truth of Islam. Muhammad then communicated his experience to his cousin `Ali, his adopted son Zayd, and his intimate friend Abu Bakr. The Prophet began by preaching his mission secretly first among his intimate friends, then among the members of his own tribe, and thereafter publicly in the city and suburbs. The Quraysh tribe were the guardians of the Ka`bah, which was a source of great prestige and profit to their city, Makkah. They were, therefore, seriously alarmed and became actively hostile towards Muhammad.
Hijrah to Abyssinia
The fury of the people of Makkah knew no bounds. Muhammad was subjected to insults, to personal violence, and to the bitterest persecution, and his converts were most relentlessly oppressed, persecuted, and tortured. Therefore, in the fifth year of his mission, Muhammad advised them to leave the country and seek refuge from the persecution of the idolaters among the Christian people of Abyssinia. Muhammad and a few stalwart followers remained in Makkah and suffered untold misery and oppression, but still their number continued to increase.
The Boycott
The Quraysh outlawed Muhammad and asked his clan to forgo their right to avenge his blood. The proud clansmen refused to give up the right at the bidding of the people of Makkah, who thereupon boycotted them. After three years, the ban was lifted. A year later, Muhammad lost his uncle Abu Talib and his wife Khadijah. The death of Abu Talib removed the last check on the Makkans’ violence. Persecution grew ever fiercer, and Muhammad sought refuge in the neighboring city of Ta’if, where he was met with great hostility and barely escaped with his life.
Hijrah to Madinah
Muhammad took council with his Makkan followers, and it was decided that they should immigrate to Madinah. They left gradually and unobtrusively, Muhammad remaining to the last. Their departure was soon discovered by the Quraysh, who decided to slay Muhammad before he, too, escaped. They, therefore, cast lots and chose forty men, one from each clan, who took a solemn vow to kill Muhammad. They were to strike simultaneously so that the murder could not be avenged on any one clan. But on the night they were to kill him, Muhammad left Makkah with Abu Bakr.
Muhammad was now free to preach, and his followers increased rapidly. The Muslims could now worship freely and live according to the laws of Allah. But the people of Makkah were not going to allow Muhammad’s movement to take root in Madinah. They organized three great expeditions against the city, but all were beaten back.
Treaty of Hudaybiyah
Eventually the Makkans and Muslims concluded the Treaty of Hudaybiyah to maintain peace and to observe neutrality in their conflicts with third parties. According to the treaty, the Muslims were to return to Madina that year without performing the pilgrimage, but they could come to do that the following year when the Quraish would vacate the city for them for three days.
Back in Makkah
It was not until AH 8 that the Muslims were able to put an end to this war by gaining a bloodless victory over Makkah when the Makkans violated the terms of their treaty. The people of Makkah, who had relentlessly oppressed Muhammad and his followers for 21 years, expected dire vengeance, but in the hour of their defeat, they were treated with the greatest magnanimity. “Go, you are free!” were the words with which Muhammad gave them general amnesty. The Prophet removed all the idols in and around the Ka`bah, saying, [The Truth has come and falsehood vanished] (Al-Israa’: 81) and the Muslim call to prayer was heard in this ancient sanctuary.
His Death
In AH 10, Muhammad went to Makkah as a pilgrim, and he felt it was for the last time because the revelation he received there included the verse [This day have I perfected your religion for you...] (Al-Ma’idah: 3). On his return to Madinah, he fell ill of a mortal fever. It lasted for 15 days, but he continued to lead the prayers until 3 days before his death, when he deputed Abu Bakr. At early dawn on the last day of his earthly life, Muhammad came out from his room beside the mosque and joined the public prayers, but later in the day he died. The end came peacefully; murmuring of pardon and the company of the righteous in Paradise, the Prophet of Islam breathed his last, at the age of 63, on Rabi` Awwal 12, AH 11.
After his death, his followers faithfully carried the message of Islam, and within 90 years, the light of Islam reached Spain, North Africa, the Caucasus, China, and India.

[قناص الرفاع]

مشكووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووره وماقصرتي على البحث وعساج على القوه انشالله

[شوكة ناعمه]

مشكووووووره ماقصرتيييييييييي 00

[بحرينيه كوول]

العفو اخوي قناص

ومشكور على المرور والتواصل

[بحرينيه كوول]

ومشكورة اختي شوكه ناعمه على المرور والتواصل

[الخنفسانه الحلوه]

مشكووره حبيبتي
يعطيج العافيه ع البحوث :d

[بحرينيه كوول]

الله يعافييك اخوي بويعقوب

ومشكوور على المرور والتواصل

[بحرينيه كوول]

الله يعافييج حبيبتي خنفسانه

ومشكوورة على المرور والتواصل

[عــمر]

يعطيج العافيه خويتي على التقارير

ولا تحرمينه من يديدج

تقبلي تحياتي

[بحرينيه كوول]

الله يعافييك اخووي

ومشكوور على المرور والتواصل

[بحرينيه كوول]

Eng 105

1) For and against

Basic tips:
1) Try to write 4 paragraphs. An introduction, advantages, disadvantages, and a conclusion.
2) Try to point out an equal number of advantages and disadvantages.
3) Link sentences with linking words (In the first place, …. - To begin with, … - In addition, ….. - What is more, … - Furthermore, … – Then, there is …. – Finally, …. – Last but not least, …)
4) Use indentation (Leave a space in the beginning of each paragraph)
5) You can use contrasting expressions to compare one point to another like:
Although / In spite of the fact that / While “It is expensive” , “it is very low in quality”
Or
“It is very expensive”. However / Nevertheless / On the other hand / In spite of this, “it is very low in quality”

Examples:
A. Keeping animals in zoos

Keeping animals in zoos has many advantages and disadvantages.

One of the most obvious advantages of keeping animals in zoos is that animals are looked after when they are sick. This can give them the best of care and also protect them from diseases. In addition to that, it’s a place where people can see and learn about animals. Finally, it can be a good place for scientists to study animals and their needs, so that they can protect them becoming extinct.

On the other hand, keeping animals in zoos has a lot of disadvantages. First of all, they are prevented from their freedom, which can cause them to be unhappy and uncomfortable. Furthermore, animals are usually forced to do silly tricks to entertain visitors of the zoo, and that might cause them discomfort. Last but not least, keeping animals in zoos can disturb the natural balance of wildlife.

In conclusion, keeping animals in zoos can be the best way to study them and save them from becoming extinct by breeding programs. However, it would be better to keep them in wild protected areas, and study them there.

B. Owning a television
Many people like watching television and spend hours sitting watching that small screen. However this has both advantages and disadvantages.

One of the obvious advantages of having a television is that it offers cheap and convenient entertainment which nearly everyone can afford. This is especially important for people who are alone all day or for large families who can’t afford to go out to cinemas. What is more, television can have a serious educational side and there are plenty of good current affairs programmes which are very informative.

On the other hand, having a television can have certain disadvantages. While it is good to have such cheap and convenient entertainment in your own living room, it may also mean the end of reading and conversation for large parts of the evening. Furthermore, although there are many good programmes on television, there is often too much blood and violence on screen. This can be especially harmful for children.

All in all, I think that having a television is important and watching it is useful if one knows how, when and what to watch.

C. Studying abroad
When you want to be different in your family you should do something different also. So when you also want to be the best one of them you should look after your study.

One of the most important things that you must take care of is your future. So you should try to build a good one by studying in good places. I hope that my brothers and I study in the best places. People always think that studying abroad is a good way to start our lives. However, it has some advantages and disadvantages.

Let’s look at the dark side first. When you are in a different country you might be affected by the culture there. Also, you will find yourself in a place that you can’t get along with at first. This means that you will have to hold a lot of responsibilities. Furthermore, you will be far away from your family and you will feel lonely.
However, studying abroad has a lot of advantages. In the first place, schools in other countries teach students in a better way than ours’ do. In addition to that, they give students a higher certificate. Last but not least, studying abroad gives the student time to learn different things like housekeeping for example.

Finally, we can say that studying abroad is a good way to improve our language and education. But in the same time it can affect our tradition and culture.

D. Traveling abroad (Ahmed Al-Khaja)
Many people travel abroad for several reasons. Some prefer not to do so. Personally, I believe traveling abroad has both advantages and disadvantages.

One of the most obvious advantages of traveling abroad is that it introduces new cultures and gets you to know the customs and traditions of other nations. Furthermore, traveling abroad is a great mean of leisure and entertainment. Finally, by traveling abroad you can receive education by entering courses in high reputable universities and institutes.

On the other hand, traveling abroad can have many disadvantages. First of all, it can cause you to get affected by other cultures and forget your own. What is more, you can face very risky situations while being abroad. Being foreign to the country, you might find it difficult to escape these situations. Last but not least, many people have a tendency to spend too much money when being abroad. When they return home, they might face financial problems because of this behaviour.

In conclusion, traveling abroad might be of benefit to the traveler, but it also might cause him misery. I think the kind of person the traveler is determines whether traveling abroad is good or bad for him.

E. Owning a mobile phone
One of the most important developments in the field of telecommunication is the mobile phone. I believe the mobile phone has both advantages and disadvantages.

We are now in the 21st century, and it is necessary to contact with other sides of the world. The mobile phone makes this easy. All my family and I have got a mobile phone. Furthermore, the mobile phone can help one get out of risky situations. Finally, the mobile is small and easy to carry.
On the other hand, owning a mobile phone can cost a lot of money. In addition to that, it can also cause one’s body harm if he uses it too much. Last but not least, mobiles can be annoying if the network isn’t very strong.

Owning a mobile phone in this age has become very essential. However one should control himself and only use it for important calls.

F. Owning a car
Every family has one or two cars or two nowadays. But, owning a car has both advantages and disadvantages.

One of the most obvious advantages of owning a car is that a car allows people to move around freely. Furthermore, there is no need to wait for a bus or a taxi, so it saves time. Moreover, owning a car is a comfortable way to travel. Especially in the winter. It can protect you from standing under the rain or in the cold. Last but not least, a car makes your life safer. You will not need to walk down a dark street to wait for a bus or take a taxi.

On the other hand, owning a car has a lot of disadvantages. First of all, owning a car can be very expensive. As well, the fuel costs a lot and a car is expensive to maintain. Although it allows people to more around freely, it is very exhausting to drive in rush hour traffics. Moreover, it causes death to many people every day. Finally, if you leave your car in the street it might get stolen.

Although owning a car has some disadvantages, it has more important advantages. Therefore, I think it is very important nowadays to own a car.

G. Living in a big family (Ali Shubbar)
It is known that people in the past used to have big families. They took it as an advantage. However, nowadays, people think it has some disadvantages.

One of the most obvious advantages of having a big family is that you can never be alone (isolated) or feel bored. Therefore, you will always fell safe and secure. Furthermore, brothers and sisters can help each other in education. They can exchange some of their experiences. Moreover, they support each other when they face a problem. What’s more, if the children grew up and worked, they may help their parents financially. More than that, children can wear each other’s clothes or play with each other’s toys.


On the other hand, having a big family has its disadvantages. In the first place, it may be difficult for the parents to control them and provide them with sufficient food, clothing and education expenses. Moreover, they won’t be able to go out a lot, because it will cost too much. For instance, if you decided to go to the cinema, it will cost at least BD 2 for each one. Added to that, having a big family means a lot of fighting. Everyone wants to watch a different program and eat a different meal …etc. That means their needs will increase.

Finally, is having a big family good or bad? In my case, living in a normal family is the perfect thing for me.

H. Living in a city or in a country? (From Noor Altawheed)
A lot of people want to live in a city, so some of them moved from the country to the city looking for better chances. But still there are some people who prefer to live in a country. So is it better to live in a city or in a country?
First, let’s talk about living in a city. It’s preferred as a place to live in because it shows you a variety of people, races and cultures. Also, it’s more exiting with its movies, theatres and restaurants. Then, there are lots of interesting shops, which make your shopping great and comfortable. Finally, the most important advantage is that it gives you more job opportunities.
On the other hand, some people don’t prefer to live in the city because it has a lot of drawbacks. One of them is the traffic jams and parking problems. Also, the polluted air, which affects our health. In addition, living there is so expensive. Furthermore, the shops are always crowded, so that makes us worried. The most important thing is that living there can be more dangerous because there are so many crimes.
Now, we’ll take about living in a country. Life in the country is very peaceful and quite. The people are so friendly and kind. Then, there is the fresh air, which comforts us. You live there with out pollution, noise, stress or crimes.
From anther way, living in the country can has its disadvantages. One of them is that you’ll be isolated from the outer world and away from modern life. Then there are less jobs, schools and hospitals, because off all these, we see that the education and health levels are so low.
In my point of view, I think I prefer living in the city to be close to the modern technology, and visiting the country is just for talking rest and change.

2) Writing a balanced Report

Basic tips:
1) Start a new section for each topic.
2) Start the section by writing its’ heading underlined
3) Write in a formal style.
4) Use connecting words (Therefore – so – because – although – however – in spite of – nevertheless – despite – as – but – beside – apart from)
5) Write both positive and negative sides.
6) Use the present simple form (They are – it is ……etc.)

Examples
A. (By Ali Shubbar)

REPORT

To: Mr. Gary Rees
From: Ali Shubbar
Subject: Cape Side High School

I visited Cape side high School and was quite impressed by the school and by the environment.

The school: This is made up of three buildings linked together. Pitches and courts are found there. Although the classes are dirty and not airy, they are big. There is a fully equipped computer center in the second building, and a quite stocked library.

Staff: Those we met seemed very friendly and efficient. All are well qualified, and the examination results are semi-excellent.

Laboratories & Gymnasium: Labs are not fully equipped. Lots of materials are not available. The gym is fully equipped with three playgrounds for different games.

Environment: This is a busy housing and school area, but with the policemen everything is going just the way it should be to stop the crowd.

Conclusion: This school would be an ideal place for a holiday course. However, the classes must be cleaned and the labs must be fully equipped.

B. (From the book)

Report
To: Mrs. Money
From: Anna Springfield
Subject: Hot Dollar Country Club

I visited the Hot Dollar country club last might and was quite impressed by what I saw, although with certain reservations.

The building: This is a large country house with tasteful decorations and fittings. Downstairs, there is a large lounge with an open log fire, a café, restaurant and games room. Upstairs, there are bedrooms and a well stocked library.

The restaurant: The food is of a high standard although prices are very high. The choice of vegetarian dishes is rather limited.

The café and the games room: Excellent, the music in the café is varied up-to-date. As for the staff, they are patient and efficient.

The gardens: I found the lawns and gardens beautiful. Some of the paths are rather steep, however, especially for older club members.

Conclusion: All together, I was impressed by the club. I feel it is a suitable place to entertain our clients and definitely recommend it. However, I think we should speak to the owner on the subject of vegetarian meals and better paths for older members.

3) Transactional letter – Applying for holiday jobs

Basic tips:
1) Start each paragraph on a new line with indentation.
2) The style should be not too formal and not too informal.
3) Try to use the following sequence in your ideas:
a. Opening ( Introduction and reason for writing)
b. Why you want the job.
c. Age and experience
d. Request for information
e. Ending (Photos and offer of references)
4) Use the layout shown in the examples

Useful expressions:
I saw your advertisement in …..
I would like to apply for a job as ……
I would like to know more about ……
Please could you send me details about ……
Could you please let me know ……
I am sending a photograph / a reference as requested.
I can come for an interview at any time.
I look forward to hearing from you.

Examples:
A. By Soso
PO box 133
Manama
Bahrain

5/11/2002

Dear Sir,
I am writing this letter to ask you about your advertisement which you put in the newspaper last week.
I liked this job because I have always dreamt of spending a summer holiday in a camp. I like sports and entertainment.
I am 17 years old, I like ****ing and I feel that working with you is a good chance to create more friendships.
I am from Bahrain and my holiday lasts until the 3rd of September.
Could you please let me know how much you will give me, and where we will stay ((send me a photo if possible)). Also, I want to know about the activities that could be done after the work hours ((at night)).
I will be very thankful if you reply as soon as possible.

Yours faithfully,
Kathy Sam
B. By Ali Shubbar
P.O. Box 222,
Manama,
Bahrain

Nov 2, 2002

Dear Sir/Madam,
I saw your advertisement in the paper and am very interested in helping for the camps.
I’m a student and like to have fun. I enjoy being with young people. Working with you would be an ideal chance (opportunity) to spend some time outdoors (abroad).
I’m 16 years old and very fit. Although I’ve never helped in camping before, I have helped in a Fête and I’m used to working hard. I can organize sports and entertainments.
Could you please let me know how many hours I’m going to work and how modest the accommodation is? I would also like to know what kind of sports I’m going to organize, and if it is necessary to know how to ****.
Here I enclose a photo as requested. My last employer will be happy to write me a reference if you so wish.
I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully (sincerely),
Ali Shubbar

4) A formal letter

Basic tips:
1) Use the layout shown in the examples.
2) The style must be formal.
3) Do NOT use contradictions (He’s , I’d …)
4) Address strangers by Sir/Madam.
5) Use paragraphs, but without indentation.
6) When describing use the following sequence:
Size  colour  pattern  material  article  additional information
7) Use commas to divide groups of words in a sentence or separate items in a list.

Useful expressions:
Thank you for your letter of ….
I am writing in reply to …..
I am writing to inform you of ….
to complain about …..
to enquire about …..
to apply for …….
for more information about …..
I would be grateful if you could / would …..
Could you possibly ……
I would be grateful if you would …..
I look forward to hearing from you / meeting you very soon.

Examples:
A. A letter of complaint (Ali Shubbar)
P.O. Box 1294
Manama,
Bahrain
October 3, 2002

SONY, Ashraf
P.O. Box ….
Manama,
Bahrain

Dear Sir / Madam,
I am writing to complain about a videocassette recorder (VCR) which I bought from your store in the SALE two weeks ago. I tried the sample VCR for flaws and checked how it worked. When I got to the cashier, however, the assistant got me a packed one, and assured me it was perfect.
I was very happy about buying the VCR; I switched on the power and played the cassette. Suddenly, the cassette got stuck. Added to that, I lost the cassette because it was torn inside the VCR.
As you will understand, I was extremely upset when this happened. Although I bought the VCR in the SALE, it cost a lot. Moreover, I only bought it from you because of your reputation for perfect quality. In fact, I have always recommended your store to friends in the past. I shall think twice before I do so again.
Here I enclose the VCR with this letter and look forward to receiving an apology and a full refund of the cost BD 200 or a replacement for the VCR.

I look forward to hearing from you,
Yours faithfully,

Ali Shubbar

B. Descriptive Letter (Ali Shubbar)
P.O. Box 222
Manama,
Bahrain
Oct 20 2002

ZARA,
Seef Mall,
Seef,
Bahrain

Dear Sir/Madam,
I’m writing to ask if anybody has handed in a car key, which I think I lost in your store last Wednesday evening. I put it on the cashier counter to pay the money, and then probably left it there.
It is a BMW car key, with a rectangle shape and the BMW’s slogan. I am desperate to find it because I can’t start my car without it, and it is the only spare one with remote control.
Please could you let me know if anybody has handed in a car key of this description, and if it would be possible to call me on 222222 so I can come and pick it up.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully,
Ali Shubbar

5) Writing a narrative

Basic tips:
1) Try using the following sequence:
a. Introduction (Background – Who? – Where? – When?)
b. The beginning of the story
c. The cause of the accident / situation
d. Your feeling while the accident.
e. The end of the story (The solution)
f. Conclusion
2) Make the beginning unusual or dramatic.
3) Make sure the events follow each other logically.
4) Start a new paragraph for each new stage of the story and use indentation.
5) Leave gaps between paragraphs
6) Use linking words (In the beginning – after that – a few seconds later – a while later – in the end)

Tenses Used:
Past continuous( was …ing): to describe what was happening at the same time as the main event began.
Past Perfect (had done / had been doing): to show one action was finished before another began.
Past Simple: to describe what happened after the main event began OR to list a sequence of separate events.

Examples:
a. Frightening story (From Noor Altawheed)
Last night while I was sleeping in my room, all my family was sleeping also, and the house was quiet. Suddenly, I woke up when I heard a loud noise coming from the kitchen.

It was about two o’clock in the morning, so I got up frightened and walked slowly towards the door. I opened it quietly, that was when I saw my parents crossing the hall to the kitchen. So I followed them. But when they heard my footsteps my mother shouted.

Quickly I answered her: “Mum”, she stopped shouting and held my hand. After that, we continued walking until we were in front of the kitchen door. My father opened it. We saw a body lying on the floor and the blood was covering the entire place. My mother and I started shouting and screaming until my mother lost her conscious. Then the body stood up and laughed loudly. He was just my brother Hussain and he was joking with us!

After minutes, my mother woke up and asked what was going on. When she knew that he was just my brother, she became extremely angry and punished him.

I was so happy for that!

b. Scary story (By Ali Shubbar)
Sometimes the simplest things, for example, a box of matches can cause a serious accident in the house. I was 6 years old. I returned home from school to our house in Essa Town. I greeted my mother. I went upstairs to have some rest until my father came back and until lunch was ready.

My mother had to go to go to the super market to get some ****ing oil. It wasn't far away. Only 10 minutes away from our house. I had a sore throat that day, so my mother decided to leave me home while she went to the supermarket to buy the oil. I was playing with my toy in the hall near the kitchen, got a box of matches from a drawer and lit a match and put it too close to my toy. In a second, the toy caught fire and it moved to my clothes.

My brother found me screaming, in great pain. He got a big towel from the bathroom, wetted it with some water very quickly and wrapped me with it put the fire out. Then he called the ambulance. The ambulance came in 10 minutes. I was badly hurt. They handled me, and they put some bandages on my hand. I thanked god that I stayed alive.

6) Describing festivals and ceremonies

Basic tips:
1) Describe every one or two aspects of the festival in a separate paragraph.
2) Use plenty of adjectives and adverbs.
3) Use the passive to describe preparations and celebrations.
4) Use the present simple to describe activities.
5) When making notes uses headings such as:
Name of festival: Where, when, why it is celebrated
Preparations:
Costumes:
Food:
The day’s events:
Evening activities:
Events for the children:
Other details:

Examples:

a. Eid Ul-Adhu (Taliba Alnoor)
Eid _ul-Adha is celebrated throughout the Muslim world as a commemoration of Prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son Ismail for God. Eid-ul-Adha is celebrated on the tenth day of the month of Thul-Hijja. Sheep and goat are killed as a reminder of the sheep God provided as a substitute for Ismail, and the meat is shared with the poor.

Preparations being a few days earlier, new clothes are bought and special Arabic coffee is prepared. Delicious traditional sweets such as halwa and rahash are bought. Streets are decorated with beautiful and shining lights.

On the morning of the festival, children go to neighbours to take the "Eideyya'. The family members visit each other. In the afternoon, a special meal, called "Machboos" is ****ed and served when the family gathers. Late in the afternoon, children go to the seaside to celebrate the "Heyya Beyya" which is a small plant grown in a small basket for children. They throw it in the sea with a wish to reach the Holy City of Mecca.

Eid-ul-Adha is surely one of the most enjoyable festivals of the year and everybody, especially the children, looks forward to its return.



b. The day of Bahrain (Ali Shubbar)
The most nation wide events in Bahrain are the National day and the Coronation day. They are held all over Bahrain each year on 16, 17 December. The idea started when Bahrain became independent in 1971 and the late Emir Sheikh Isa held the throne.

Preparations begin weeks before hand. The streets are decorated with multi color lamps, big colorful posters with the pictures of H.M. The King. Costumes and masks are carefully designed and vehicles are decorated with Bahrain’s flags. Flags and streamers are hung and placed all over Bahrain. Buildings are decorated. Drum bands rehearse. Students at school rehearse as well for the big day.

The event lasts for 2 days and is a glorious feast of music and color. The procession of the day followed by dancers and bands in original Arab costumes parades, and the spectators’ cheers fill the cold air. At night, people rush to Isa Town stadium to watch the firework displays. They are watched in many areas, too. They add to the beauty of the celebration. Several channels transmit the celebration live to enable people at home to watch the festival as well.

The festival is a carefree holiday to the majority of people on the island. Thousands of people watch the festival. It’s a day to remember.

c. The national day
The most colorful festival in Bahrain is the national day. It is held all over Bahrain each year on the 16th of December. It marks the independence of Bahrain in 1971.

Preparations begin two weeks before hand. Traditions costumes are carefully designed and some vehicles are decorated with Bahrain’s flag. Streets and houses are decorated with bright lights, streamers and big posters with pictures of the royal family. Steel and drum bans rehearse. Student at the school rehearse for the big festival. The whole country looks wonderful before that day.

The celebrations last for three days. It is a wonderful feast of joy and happiness. On the first day H.H the emir addresses the nation. Later on, many people head for the emirs palace to congratulate him on this occasion.

In the afternoon people start gathering near the nation stadium in Isa town where the procession begins. Boys and girls put on their best clothes. Sword dancers in original Arab costumes perform in front of people. Several channels transmit the celebration live.

On the second and third day the celebration continues. There are fireworks and traditional singing and dancing. Thousand of people take part in the celebration – Bahraini’s and none Bahraini’s – the whole festival is a carefree holiday. And a great time to remember.
Every year my family and I watch this festival. We always have a great time. The national day is the happiest time in Bahrain

d. The wedding day
Weddings are very special occasions in almost every country. In Bahrain wedding ceremonies are happy times to all – families, friends and neighbors.

Preparations for the wedding start well beforehand. Relatives and friends of the couple take part in the preparations. If the wedding party is held in the groom’s house, the house is decorated with colorful lights. Sometimes a tent is put up near the house so that women can celebrate away from men. A special meal is prepared for the guests. Sometimes wedding parties are held in hotels, matams or special halls. Generally a lot of preparations are made before the wedding.

On the wedding day the guests don’t arrive before evenings. However, the day starts early for the couple and their close friends. The bride either goes to the hairdresser or summons a lady hairdresser to come to her. Her best friends help her to get dressed and get ready for the wedding. The bright groom does the same. He has to wear a special cloak called “Beshet”. He goes to the place where the wedding is to be held early and waits for the guests to arrive. Guests congratulate the groom and his family then they are invited to have a meal. There are no dancing or singing in the groom’s party. However women and girls sing to the bride and may even dance. The atmosphere in the party is that of happiness and enjoyment.

In the end the bride goes to live with her groom in his place, with little of tears because of leaving her family and home. However, with time she gets on with this situation and both of them, the groom and the bride, go on their honeymoon.




e. Weddings
Weddings are very happy occasions all over the world. In Bahrain, weddings are celebrated in different ways. However, I will write about the common features.

Preparations for the wedding usually take place two weeks beforehand. The bridegrooms and the bride’s families decorate their houses and invite relatives and friends to this special occasion. Relatives and friends of the couple often take part in the preparations. Some take care of decorating the place where the wedding will be held. Others prepare a special meal on the wedding day. Sometimes, the meal is ordered from restaurants and bakeries.

On the wedding day, the brides close friends help her get ready by putting Henna and make up and wearing special wedding clothes for this special occasion. Sometimes, a women hairdresser is called to help the bride with make up. The same happens to the bridegroom. There are two separate parties for men and women. The bridegroom puts on a traditional ((Bisht)) and receives the guests who come to congratulate him and his family. The guests are offered sweets and coffee before they are invited to have the meal. In the brides’ party, women and girls sing and dance to the bride. However, men cannot see this because it is held in a closed place or in a special tent.

When the party is over, the couples go to their new house or go to the hotel. On the following day, special meal called ((Halwa)) is served in the morning for the guests who come to congratulate the bridegroom, the bride and their families. The honeymoon usually starts the next day.

Of course, recently great changes have taken place in this tradition

[بحرينيه كوول]

Karate


INTRODUCTION


Karate (Japanese, “empty hand”), martial art of unarmed self-defense in which directed or focused blows of the hands and feet, accompanied by special breathing and shouts, are dealt from poised positions. More than a method of combat, karate emphasizes self-discipline, positive attitude, and high moral purpose. It is taught professionally at different levels, and under different Asian names, as a self-defense skill, a competitive sport, and a free-style exercise.


HISTORY
The art of karate is more than 1000 years old and originated in eastern Asia, first as monastic training and later as a defense method used by Chinese peasants against armed bandits. During the 17th century it became highly developed as an art on the island of Okinawa, Japan. In 1922 karate was introduced to the Japanese public by an Okinawan, Funakoshi Gichin, and the art is today chiefly associated with Japan. It was introduced into the U.S. after World War II. Many types, including Korean (tae kwon do) and Chinese styles, are taught in the U.S.


TECHNIQUE AND TRAINING
Karate is related to judo and jujutsu, but stresses techniques for striking, with lethal kicks and punches, rather than wrestling or throwing an opponent. The three elements of speed, strength, and technique are vital to karate expertise. Constant alertness and a keen sense of timing and surprise are also requisites.
Great attention is given to knowing the most vulnerable points of the human body, which may be attacked by the hands, elbows, knees, or feet. These areas include the face, neck, solar plexus, spinal column, groin, and kidneys. In ordinary karate competitions or exhibitions, only the area of the body above the waist is allowed as a target, and all blows are to be pulled. The most common blows used are chops or knife hands, knuckle punches, hammerblows, finger jabs, and front, side, back, round, jump, and stamping kicks. In actual fighting, any of these blows can be fatal. The ability of a karate master (sensei) to break boards or bricks with a chop of the bare hand is proverbial.
The karate trainee toughens hands and feet by driving them into containers of sand, rice, or gravel and by striking sandbags and special punching boards. Constant exercises are important for limbering up and for strengthening the muscles of the body. Deep-breathing exercises are also useful because exhalation and sudden shouts accompany the directed blows, particularly the final or so-called killing blows. Such breathing and cries help the rhythm of the karate attack, focus more force in each blow or block, and psychologically invigorate a person while disconcerting the opponent.


INSTRUCTION AND ACHIEVEMENT
The language of karate is chiefly Japanese. A karate training hall or gym is called a dōjō, and the white, pajamalike garment worn in all training is called the gi. More than 200 specific Japanese terms are used for the various blows and moves that are employed in formal exercises called kata.
Degrees of achievement are formally recognized in karate training, each represented by a cloth belt of a particular color worn around the gi, the usual colors being, in ascending order, white, green, purple, brown, and black. Qualifications for belts differ from school to school, depending upon the style and standard of karate taught. The black belt, or dan, signifies the highest proficiency in karate and, like the other belts, is itself qualified by degrees of honor or skill, the highest dan being the ninth or tenth degree.


COMPETITION
The Japan Karate Association, established by Funakoshi in 1949, held the first all-Japan karate championships in 1957. Since then the association has become an international organization, with affiliated karate clubs around the world. Karate schools have also come into being, particularly in the U.S., where it has become highly popular as a sport and a method for self-protection. Karate has also been incorporated in training programs for the police, soldiers, and college athletes.
No international karate organization exists, largely because of the difficulties in standardizing the many different schools and styles of karate. In the U.S., although no single organization conducts official national competitions, hundreds of tournaments are held each year throughout the country. Among the best known are the annual American championships of the Japan Karate Association, held usually on the West Coast or in Hawaii, and the All-American Open Karate Championships, held annually at Madison Square Garden in New York City.

[بحرينيه كوول]

Eng 104

Famous Sport


Gellaina was an old Bahraini game. My father used to play it when he was in my age. Gellaina isn’t just an old Bahraini game, it’s a traditional game.

Two friends usually play the game. One in a circle made on the ground, big enough to for him to stand in and the second stands around 50 feet from the circle. The guy in the circle holds a bat and the other holds a short stick. To get the other’s attention, the one holding the short stick shouts “Yaay?”, and if the other is ready he shouts “Yaay!” back. So the guy outside the circle through the little stick to try and get it in side the circle, but the guy inside the circle tries to hit the little stick with the bat while it’s still moving. If the little stick falls in the circle the guy outside the circle wins, but if the guy inside the circle hits it with the bat or the stick falls outside the circle, they count the distance between the stick and the circle using the bat’s length.

That used to be played everyday in Bahraini, kids considered it as a prayer! But that isn’t happening anymore.

[بحرينيه كوول]

ENG 104



Kids and sport


A popular sport

The main reason why people take up a sport is to enjoy them selves while others like to get fitter and stronger. Whatever sport you try, remember that you don’t have to be good at it to enjoy it, taking part is fun. Sports also give you lots of opportunities to meet people and make new friends.
One of the most popular sports you can take part in is table tennis, it is very well-known and a lot of people enjoy it. It’s an indoor game, and can be played by two or four players. Anyone can play it, men, women, or mixed.
Table tennis is an easy sport, it starts when one of the players hits a small light ball using a bat. The ball goes back and forth across a table divided by a low net, until a player makes a shot that an opponent is unable to return.
Try playing table tennis and you’ll like it!


Volleyball is an interesting team sport that was invented by William G.Morgan in America in 1895. It is played by twelve players (six players in each team).
It is played in a court which is 9 by 18m and divided into two sides by a net. It is based on hitting the ball back and forth over the net.
Volleyball is easy to play and a lot of people enjoy it. An estimated 800 million people play it throughout the world.



Kids and sport


A famous athlete (sport player)

Diego Maradona is an Argentinean footballer. He has been playing football for twenty years since he was fifteen years old. He started playing football on the street when he was young. One day a man from the local club was watching him playing, so he asked him to join the club, and he became famous. Maradona is enthusiastic about most sports, but he is crazy about football.
Maradona trains about 3 hours a day, 5 days a week. The training sessions start at 4 o’clock and last until 7 o’clock.
Being addicted to sports, Maradona faces many problems. He worries about injuries a lot, he has broken his leg many times! Another problem is that he travels a lot so he doesn’t have any time for his family and friends.
Maradona has participated in lots of matches and many world competitions and he has won many cups and awards. He has always believed that one day he will become the most famous sport player in the world!

[بحرينيه كوول]

ENG 104



footballer



His full name is Luis Filipe Madeira Caeiro 'FIGO', he was born in Almada(Portugal) in 4 November 1972 .
He is about 1.8 m height and he weight 75 kg. he plays now in real Madrid C.F. and he was play in Portugal. His first team was in Barcelona. His Marital status is Married she called Helene and his daughter is Daniela .
He speaks 4 langauges portuguese, english, spanish and a little of Swedish, and love Rock(Queen) music . the best food foe him Fried Chicken and Duck with rice. He love to do many things such as The beach, spending time with friends.
Felipe Madeira Figo was born on November 4, 1972, in the working-class district of Almada in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon. He first played football in the street team Os Pastilhas. Then, as an 11-year-old, he joined the junior section of legendary Sporting Lisbon. His former coach and great patron Carlos Queiroz, who later coached the Portuguese national team, recalls that: "Even then, Luis was ahead of all the rest."
In 1989, the wily, agile Figo was a member of the Portuguese team that finished third in the FIFA U16 World Championships in Scotland. Two years later, he won the FIFA World Junior Championships on home soil with the national U20 team. Then, as later in the national team, he formed the heart of the team with Rui Costa and Jo? Pinto.
Figo was 17 when he made his debut in the Portuguese championship. He earned his first international cap soon after turning 19, and was transferred to FC Barcelona in 1995. A few months earlier he had won the Portuguese Cup with Sporting, and finished second in the Portuguese Championship. In Barcelona, where he was coached by Johan Cruyff, Bobby Robson and Louis van Gaal, the five-times winner of "Portugal's Footballer of the Year" developed into a superstar. He was central to the team that won the 1997 Cup Winners Cup and the European Supercup, the 1998 and 1999 Spanish championship and the 1997 and 1998 Spanish Cup (Copa del Rey).
But Figo's most outstanding performance to date came in the 2000 European Championships in Belgium and Holland. Figo was both the head and heart of a Portuguese team that played the finest attacking football of the tournament, before succumbing in the semi-final to the eventual winner, France. Many regard Figo as the player of the tournament.
After EURO 2000, Figo, who has said that "without the ball, I am only half complete", moved for the then record sum of CHF100m to Real Madrid, where he immediately won the Spanish championship. Real fans adore Figo, because his style of football not only looks good - it works. Jupp Heynckes, former coach at Real, agrees: "Luis is technically perfect, quick off the mark and a great dribbler. He's a striker who pulls the crowds into the stadium."
Real Madrid's technical director, Jorge Valdano, is equally taken with the player in the Number 10 strip: "We are so used to Figo playing brilliantly that we think he's playing badly when he just plays normally."
Off the pitch, Figo enjoys a less spectacular existence, preferring to avoid the publicity that inevitably surrounds him. In his free time he reads, goes to the cinema, listens to music, rides horseback and plays golf. In April 2000, a book was published about Portugal's most famous and best footballer since the legendary Eusebio. Its title: "Figo - Born to Triumph".
I like luis because he is the important player in his team. He plays good, and he is good in the Midfielder and the best in Wing Forward

[بحرينيه كوول]

ENG 101

SUPER HERO


RONALDO


First Steps

Ronaldo was born on the 22nd of September 1976 in Bento Ribeiro, a suburb of Rio de Janeiro. He is named after Doctor Ronaldo Valente, who assisted his mother, Sonia dos Santos Barata, during her third delivery. His father, Nelio Nazario de Lima, worked for the telephone company “Telerj”. Ronaldo’s full name was Ronaldo Luiz, but his brother Nelinho and his sister Ione prefer to call him “Dadado”. Curly haired and always smiling, the cute boy “Dadado” becomes the liveliest kid in Rua General Cesar Obino, the street where his family lives.

Evidence of the physical coordination is clear from the start as he soon learns how to walk, play and even dance. He didn’t start speaking until he is almost three years old, by which time he’s become fascinated with watching his father playing soccer with friends. From the very beginning, school is just a bit of a nuisance for him. He prefers being outdoors, playing barefoot and dreaming the dream. He wants to become like his idol, Zico. In 1988, Ronaldo joins his first club, Tennis Club Valqueire, where he plays “futebol de salمo”. Futebol de Salمo, or football indoor, is played with a size 2 ball on a pitch the size of a basketball court. The ball has very little bounce which means that the ball is always on the floor. The game is designed to encourage foot control and is credited with being one reason why Brazilian players are so skillful. Ronaldo starts his first game for Tennis Club Valqueire on the bench where they select him as cover for the goalkeeper. Eventually he plays in the forwards, he likes it. He scores. Ronaldo’s moment happens during a tournament for junior players, when he plays like a comic book hero for Valqueire against the rich Vasco de Gama team.
While Ronaldo steers his team to victory, he is seen by a member of Social Ramos, who succeeds in moving the young boy to his own team also if Sonia, his mother, try to resist because the bus trip from Bento Ribeiro to Social Ramos takes two hours each way. It’s still “futebol de salمo” though, and Ronaldo, now 11 years old, feels ready for proper soccer. Problems arise when he tries to get into the Flamengo team; but they don’t want him. On the return journey home, a gang of people threaten him on the bus. They steal the watch he had bought with money he had saved from his first few jobs. A day that Ronaldo regrets. As for Flamengo, a chance they will never forget! Ronaldo perseveres. At 13, he plays “futebol de salمo” with
Social Ramos and soccer with Sao Cristovao. He becomes best scorer in both tournaments and has to choose which path to follow. He decides to focus on Sao Cristovao only. He’s good and he’s getting noticed. His mother would like him to study, but he prefers playing soccer. Finally he gets his big break when he signs for a fee. Reinaldo Pitta and Alexandre Martins (who buy him for $7,500 dollars), and the coach of the Brazilian under 17 team. Ronaldo asks for the Nike shoes he’s always dreamt of, and becomes a leading player in the South American junior tournament in Colombia that year. Following that success, Reinaldo Pitta and Alexandre Martins get him a better deal, this time, $50,000 dollars and a move to Cruzeiro di Belo Horizonte, a reasonably big club in Minas Gerais, in the centre of Brazil. Far from the beaches in Rio, Ronaldo is growing into the role of being a professional footballer. He’s happy and gets along with the rest of the team. Naturally, he gets homesick and his parents, now separated, come and visit him. They follow his exceptional performances. The pace of progress for Ronaldo accelerates. The local press describe him as incredibly talented. In December 1993, just 17 years old, Ronaldo’s big dream becomes true: he’s asked to join the national team, the green and gold Selecao. He uses part of his first pay cheque to buy a Volkswagen Golf (even if he’s not old enough for a driving licence yet) and help his mum to move out of Bento Ribeiro.

Young Star :

When Ronaldo starts playing with Selecao, he’s 17 years old: more or less, the same age as when Pele started too. Another coincidence which links the two players is they both play their first game for Brazil against Argentina. During the most important match in South America, Ronaldo, the boy from Bento Ribeiro plays for the last 10 minutes, replacing Bebeto. He still has curly hair and wears dental braces; he still dreams of becoming the new Zico. They include him in the USA `94 world cup squad. When Parreira, the coach, reveals the final list of 22 players, he includes Ronaldo in the list; a selection that pleases all Brazilians who believe in his talent. Dutch football club PSV Eindhoven considers making a bid, more as an investment than a risky move. With the help of the Italian Giovanni Branchini the club arranges a deal with its Brazilian counterpart and with Cruzeiro.
One more coincidence; Ronaldo flies to Europe to the very same club in which Romario started his career. But all this is not enough to be more than a replacement in Selecao. Among the players for the ’94 World Cup, there’s the 29 year-old defender Ronaldo from Sao Paulo. To distinguish the two players with the same name, two jerseys are made: one, for the older Ronaldo, with “Ronaldao” printed on it; the other one, number 18, with “Ronaldinho” written on. The nickname was already widely used by fans and the media, but from that point it became “official”. Talking about Ronaldo’s move Arnesen, general manager of PSV, comments on how regard him as shrewd: “Congratulations for buying Ronaldinho? Thanks, but a talent like that would have been discovered by…my grandma” Ronaldo’s talent is “discovered” also by Nike, who starts sponsoring the young star and all just 12 months after he didn’t even have the money to pay for a pair of Nike boots. But Ronaldo is also paid to be just a replacement player. It happens, when you are 17 years old, and it happens during the World Cup. Even if the media want him to play, it doesn’t affect Parreira who doesn’t change his mind. His mother also fails to exert maternal influence who, during a famous television interview, asks about her son: “Why do you never let that Ronaldinho play?”. Ronaldinho thanks her and without any hint of envy, he keeps following and learning from Bebeto and Romario’s performances. He enjoys the final against Italy and the resultant victory. It’s the fourth World Cup victory in Brazilian history. With the help of a videocamera, he shoots the best moments of the day, when people celebrate and Selecao commemorates Ayrton Senna with a huge sign displayed at the end of the game. From that moment, the European adventure took off. Ronaldo leaves his Brazilian friends and flies to Europe and PSV Eindhoven, where he finds another Brazilian, Vampeta, and a friend, Cesar, who will soon become a kind of brother for him.



The Dutch language is difficult. The weather and the ****ing are not pleasant either. His friendliest environment is the football pitch. His lucky star shines from day one. He plays and scores. Under the growing attention of the television audience, Ronaldo is not afraid of being compared to the big champions of soccer history, and becomes Best Scorer of the Dutch season. He’s just 18 years old. After one year with PSV Eindhoven and a World Cup seen from the bench, Ronaldo asks to play in the national team for the Copa America. But the coach, Zagalo, says no. Too young. Or perhaps too good?

[بحرينيه كوول]

ENG 102


The Sun
Closest star to Earth. The Sun is a huge mass of hot, glowing gas. The strong gravitational pull of the Sun holds Earth and the other planets in the solar system in orbit. The Sun’s light and heat influence all of the objects in the solar system and allow life to exist on Earth.

The Sun is an average star—its size, age, and temperature fall in about the middle of the ranges of these properties for all stars. Astronomers believe that the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and will keep shining for about another 7 billion years.

For humans, the Sun is beautiful and useful, but also powerful and dangerous. As Earth turns, the Sun rises over the eastern horizon in the morning, passes across the sky during the day, and sets in the west in the evening. This movement of the Sun across the sky marks the passage of time during the day (see Sundial). The Sun’s movement can produce spectacular sunrises and sunsets under the right atmospheric conditions. At night, reflected sunlight makes the Moon and planets bright in the night sky.

While it lights our day and provides energy for life, sunlight can also be harmful to people. Human skin is sensitive to ultraviolet light emitted from the Sun. Earth’s atmosphere blocks much of the harmful light, but sunlight is still strong enough to burn skin under some conditions (see Burn). Sunburn is one of the most important risk factors in the development of skin cancers, which can be fatal. Sunlight is also very harmful to human eyes. A person should never look directly at the Sun, even with sunglasses or during an eclipse. The Sun influences Earth with more than just light. Particles flowing from the Sun can disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, and these disruptions can interfere with electronic communications.


The Sun is large and massive compared to the other objects in the solar system. The Sun’s radius (the distance from its center to its surface) is 695,508 km (432,169 mi), 109 times as large as Earth’s radius. If the Sun were hollow, a million Earths could fit inside it. The Sun has a mass of 1.989 × 1027 metric tons. This number is very large. Written out, it would be the digits 1989 followed by 24 zeroes. The Sun is 333,000 times as massive as Earth is. Despite its large mass, the Sun has a lower density, or mass per unit volume, than Earth. The Sun’s average density is only 1.409 g/cu cm (1.188 oz/cu in), which is a quarter of the average density of Earth

The Sun produces an enormous amount of light. It generates 3.83 × 1026 watts of power in the form of light. In comparison, an incandescent lamp emits 60 to 100 watts of power. The temperature of the outer, visible part of the Sun is 5510°C (9950°F).

From Earth the Sun looks small, because it is far away. Its average distance from Earth is 150 million km (93 million mi). Light from the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach Earth. This light is still strong enough when it reaches Earth, however, to damage human eyes when viewed directly. The Sun is much closer to Earth than any other star is. The Sun’s nearest stellar neighbor, Proxima Centauri (part of the triple star Centauri), is 4.3 light-years from our solar system, meaning light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.3 years to reach the Sun. The Sun is so much closer to Earth than all other stars are that the intense light of the Sun keeps us from seeing any other stars during the day.



THE MOON
Name given to the natural satellite of Earth, and sometimes applied to the satellites of the other planets in the solar system. The diameter of Earth’s Moon is about 3,480 km (about 2,160 mi), or about one-fourth that of Earth, and the Moon’s volume is about one-fiftieth that of Earth. The mass of Earth is 81 times greater than the mass of the Moon. Thus the average density of the Moon is only three-fifths, and the gravitational pull at the lunar surface only one-sixth, that of Earth (see Gravitation). The Moon has no liquid water and essentially no atmosphere, so no weather exists to change its surface; yet it is not totally inert.

The Moon moves about Earth at an average distance of 384,403 km (238,857 mi), and at an average speed of 3,700 km/h (2,300 mph). It completes one revolution in an elliptical orbit about Earth in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 11.5 seconds with reference to the stars (see Time). For the Moon to go from one phase to the next similar phase, or one lunar month, requires 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 2.8 seconds. The Moon rotates once on its axis in about the same period of time that elapses for its sidereal period of revolution, accounting for the fact that virtually the same portion of the Moon is always turned toward the Earth. Although the Moon appears bright to the eye, it reflects into space only 7 percent of the light that falls on it. The reflectivity, or albedo, of 0.07 is similar to that of coal dust.

At any one time, an observer can see only 50 percent of the Moon’s entire surface. However, an additional 9 percent can be seen from time to time around the apparent edge because of the relative motion called libration. This is because of the slightly different angles of view from Earth, due to different relative positions of the Moon along its inclined elliptical orbit.

The Moon shows progressively different phases as it moves along its orbit around Earth. Half the Moon is always in sunlight, just as half Earth has day while the other half has night. The phases of the Moon depend on how much of the sunlit half can be seen at any one time. In the phase called the new moon, the face is completely in shadow. About a week later, the Moon is in first quarter, resembling a luminous half-circle; another week later, the full moon shows its fully lighted surface; a week afterward, in its last quarter, the Moon appears as a half-circle again. The entire cycle is repeated each lunar month. The Moon is full when it is farther away from the Sun than Earth; it is new when it is closer. When it is more than half illuminated, it is said to be in gibbous phase. The Moon is said to be waning when it progresses from full to new, and to be waxing as it proceeds again to full. Temperatures on its surface are extreme, ranging from a maximum of 127°C (261°F) at lunar noon to a minimum of -173°C (-279°F) just before lunar dawn.

Ancient observers of the Moon believed that the dark regions on its face were oceans, giving rise to the name mare (Latin for “sea”), which is still used today; the brighter regions were likewise held to be continents. Modern observation and exploration of the Moon has yielded far more comprehensive and specific knowledge. Since the Renaissance, telescopes have revealed a wealth of lunar detail, and lunar spacecraft have contributed further to this knowledge. Features discernible on the surface of the Moon include craters, mountain ranges, plains or maria, faults, domes, rilles, and rays. The largest distinct crater, called Bailly, is 295 km (183 mi) wide and 3,960 m (13,000 ft) deep. The largest mare or sea is Mare Imbrium (Sea of Rains), about 1,200 km (about 750 mi) wide. The highest mountains, in the Leibnitz and Doerfel ranges near the south pole of the Moon, have peaks up to 6,100 m (20,000 ft) in height, comparable to the Himalayas on Earth. Craters as small as 1.6 km (1 mi) across have been defined in telescopic observations. The origin of lunar craters has been long debated. The latest evidence indicates that nearly all craters were formed by explosive impacts of high-velocity meteorites or small asteroids, mostly during the early part of lunar history, when the solar system still contained many such fragments. Some craters, rilles, and domes, however, display characteristics of indisputable volcanic origin. See Meteorite; Telescope; Volcano.


Galaxy, a massive ensemble of hundreds of millions of stars, all gravitationally interacting, and orbiting about a common center. Astronomers estimate that there are about 125 billion galaxies in the universe. All the stars visible to the unaided eye from Earth belong to Earth’s galaxy, the Milky Way. The Sun, with its associated planets, is just one star in this galaxy. Besides stars and planets, galaxies contain clusters of stars; atomic hydrogen gas; molecular hydrogen; complex molecules composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and silicon, among others; and cosmic rays

A Persian astronomer, al-Sufi, is credited with first describing the spiral galaxy seen in the constellation Andromeda. By the middle of the 18th century, only three galaxies had been identified. In 1780, the French astronomer Charles Messier published a list that included 32 galaxies. These galaxies are now identified by their Messier (M) numbers; the Andromeda galaxy, for example, is known among astronomers as M31.

Thousands of galaxies were identified and cataloged by the British astronomers Sir William Herschel, Caroline Herschel, and Sir John Herschel, during the early part of the 19th century. Since 1900 galaxies have been discovered in large numbers by photographic searches. Galaxies at enormous distances from earth appear so tiny on a photograph that they can hardly be distinguished from stars. The largest known galaxy has about 13 times as many stars as the Milky Way.

In 1912 the American astronomer Vesto M. Slipher, working at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona, discovered that the lines in the spectrum of all galaxies were shifted toward the red spectral region (see Redshift; Spectroscopy). This was interpreted by the American astronomer Edwin Hubble as evidence that all galaxies are moving away from one another and led to the conclusion that the universe is expanding. It is not known if the universe will continue to expand or if it contains sufficient matter to slow down the galaxies gravitationally so they will eventually begin contracting to the point from which they arose.

When viewed or photographed with a large telescope, only the nearest galaxies exhibit individual stars. For most galaxies, only the combined light of all the stars is detected. Galaxies exhibit a variety of forms. Some have an overall globular shape, with a bright nucleus. Such galaxies, called ellipticals, contain a population of old stars, usually with little apparent gas or dust, and few newly formed stars. Elliptical galaxies come in a vast range of sizes, from giant to dwarf.

In contrast, spiral galaxies are flattened disk systems containing not only some old stars but also large populations of young stars, much gas and dust, and molecular clouds that are the birthplace of stars (see Star). Often the regions containing bright young stars and gas clouds are arranged in long spiral arms that can be observed to wind around the galaxy. Generally a halo of faint older stars surrounds the disk; a smaller nuclear bulge often exists, emitting two jets of energetic matter in opposite directions.

Other disklike galaxies, with no overall spiral form, are classified as irregulars. These galaxies also have large amounts of gas, dust, and young stars, but no arrangement of a spiral form. They are usually located near larger galaxies, and their appearance is probably the result of a tidal encounter with the more massive galaxy. Some extremely peculiar galaxies are located in close groups of two or three, and their tidal interactions have caused distortions of spiral arms, producing warped disks and long streamer tails. Ring galaxies, for example, form when a small galaxy collides with the center of a spiral galaxy. An intense ring of stars forms at the outer edges of the new, combined galaxy. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has revealed many more ring galaxies than astronomers expected, suggesting that galactic collisions may be common


THE Solar System
The Sun and the celestial bodies orbiting the Sun, including the nine planets and their satellites; the asteroids, comets, and meteoroids; and interplanetary dust and gas. The term may also refer to a group of celestial bodies orbiting another star (see Extrasolar Planets). In this article, solar system refers to the system that includes Earth and the Sun. The dimensions of this system are specified in terms of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun, called the astronomical unit (AU). One AU is 150 million km (about 93 million mi). The most distant known planet, Pluto, has an orbit at 39.44 AU from the Sun. The boundary between the solar system and interstellar space—called the heliopause—is estimated to occur near 100 AU. The comets, however, achieve the greatest distance from the Sun; they have highly eccentric orbits (see Orbit) ranging out to 50,000 AU or more. This solar system was the only planetary system known to exist until 1995, when astronomers discovered a planet about 0.6 times the mass of Jupiter orbiting the star 51 Pegasi. Soon after, astronomers found a planet about 8.1 times the mass of Jupiter orbiting the star 70 Virginis, and a planet about 3.5 times the mass of Jupiter orbiting the star 47 Ursa Majoris. Since then, astronomers have found planets and disks of dust in the process of forming planets around many other stars. Many astronomers think it likely that solar systems of some sort are numerous throughout the universe. See Astronomy; Galaxy; Star.

The Sun is a typical star of intermediate size and luminosity. Sunlight and other radiation are produced by the conversion of hydrogen into helium in the Sun’s hot, dense interior (see Nuclear Energy). Although this nuclear fusion is destroying 600 million metric tons of hydrogen each second, the Sun is so massive (2 × 1030 kg, or 4.4 × 1030 lb) that it can continue to shine at its present brightness for 6 billion years. This stability has allowed life to develop and survive on Earth.

For all the Sun’s steadiness, it is an extremely active star. On its surface dark sunspots bounded by intense magnetic fields come and go in 11-year cycles; sudden bursts of charged particles from solar flares can cause auroras and disturb radio signals on Earth; and a continuous stream of protons, electrons, and ions leaves the Sun and moves out through the solar system, spiraling with the Sun’s rotation. This solar wind shapes the ion tails of comets and leaves its traces in the lunar soil, samples of which were brought back from the Moon’s surface by piloted United States Apollo spacecraft

Nine major planets are currently known. They are commonly divided into two groups: the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto). The inner planets are small and are composed primarily of rock and iron. The outer planets (except Pluto) are much larger and consist mainly of hydrogen, helium, and ice


Milky Way

The large, disk-shaped aggregation of stars, or galaxy, that includes the Sun and its solar system. In addition to the Sun, the Milky Way contains about a trillion other stars. Its name is derived from its appearance as a faintly luminous band that stretches across earth’s sky at night. This band is the disk in which the solar system lies. Its hazy appearance results from the combined light of stars too far away to be distinguished individually by the unaided eye. The individual stars that are distinct in the sky are those in the Milky Way Galaxy that lie sufficiently close to the solar system to be discerned separately.

From the middle northern latitudes, the Milky Way is best seen on clear, moonless, summer nights, when it appears as a luminous, irregular band circling the sky from the northeastern to the southeastern horizon. It extends through the constellations Perseus, Cassiopeia, and Cepheus. In the region of the Northern Cross it divides into two streams: the western stream, which is bright as it passes through the Northern Cross, fades near Ophiuchus, or the Serpent Bearer, because of dense dust clouds, and appears again in Scorpio; and the eastern stream, which grows brighter as it passes southward through Scutum and Sagittarius. The brightest part of the Milky Way extends from Scutum to Scorpio, through Sagittarius. The center is in the direction of Sagittarius and is about 28,000 light-years from the Sun.

The Milky Way has been determined to be a large spiral galaxy, with several spiral arms coiling around a central bulge about 10,000 light-years thick. The stars in the central bulge are closer together than those in the arms, where more interstellar clouds of dust and gas are found. The diameter of the disk is about 100,000 light-years. It is surrounded by a larger cloud of hydrogen gas, warped and scalloped at its edges, and surrounding this in turn is a spherical halo that contains many separate globular clusters of stars mainly lying above or below the disk. This halo may be more than twice as wide as the disk itself. In addition, studies of galactic movements suggest that the Milky Way system contains far more matter than is accounted for by the known disk and attendant clusters—up to 2000 billion times more mass than the Sun contains. Astronomers have therefore speculated that the known Milky Way system is in turn surrounded by a much larger corona of undetected matter. Another recent speculation is that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy.

The Milky Way contains both the so-called type I stars, brilliant, blue stars; and type II stars, giant red stars (see Star). The central Milky Way and the halo are composed of the type II population. Most of this region is obscured behind dust clouds, which prevent visual observation. Radiation from the central region has been recorded by use of such special devices as photoelectric cells, infrared filters, and radio telescopes. Such studies indicate compact objects near the galactic center, possibly starburst remnants or a massive black hole. The center of the galaxy is home to clouds of antimatter particles, which reveal themselves by emitting gamma rays when they meet particles of matter and annihilate. Astronomers believe the antimatter particles provide more evidence for a massive black hole at the Milky Way’s center. In 1998 astronomers observed 20 stars near the center racing around it at up to 5 million km/hr (3 million mph)—ten times the speed of typical stars—which suggests that they are orbiting a black hole.

Surrounding the central region is a fairly flat disk comprising stars of both type II and type I; the brightest members of the latter category are luminous, blue supergiants. Imbedded in the disk, and emerging from opposite sides of the central region, are the spiral arms, which contain a majority of the type I population together with much interstellar dust and gas. One arm passes in the vicinity of the Sun and includes the great nebula in Orion.


Milky Way

The large, disk-shaped aggregation of stars, or galaxy, that includes the Sun and its solar system. In addition to the Sun, the Milky Way contains about a trillion other stars. Its name is derived from its appearance as a faintly luminous band that stretches across earth’s sky at night. This band is the disk in which the solar system lies. Its hazy appearance results from the combined light of stars too far away to be distinguished individually by the unaided eye. The individual stars that are distinct in the sky are those in the Milky Way Galaxy that lie sufficiently close to the solar system to be discerned separately.

From the middle northern latitudes, the Milky Way is best seen on clear, moonless, summer nights, when it appears as a luminous, irregular band circling the sky from the northeastern to the southeastern horizon. It extends through the constellations Perseus, Cassiopeia, and Cepheus. In the region of the Northern Cross it divides into two streams: the western stream, which is bright as it passes through the Northern Cross, fades near Ophiuchus, or the Serpent Bearer, because of dense dust clouds, and appears again in Scorpio; and the eastern stream, which grows brighter as it passes southward through Scutum and Sagittarius. The brightest part of the Milky Way extends from Scutum to Scorpio, through Sagittarius. The center is in the direction of Sagittarius and is about 28,000 light-years from the Sun.

The Milky Way has been determined to be a large spiral galaxy, with several spiral arms coiling around a central bulge about 10,000 light-years thick. The stars in the central bulge are closer together than those in the arms, where more interstellar clouds of dust and gas are found. The diameter of the disk is about 100,000 light-years. It is surrounded by a larger cloud of hydrogen gas, warped and scalloped at its edges, and surrounding this in turn is a spherical halo that contains many separate globular clusters of stars mainly lying above or below the disk. This halo may be more than twice as wide as the disk itself. In addition, studies of galactic movements suggest that the Milky Way system contains far more matter than is accounted for by the known disk and attendant clusters—up to 2000 billion times more mass than the Sun contains. Astronomers have therefore speculated that the known Milky Way system is in turn surrounded by a much larger corona of undetected matter. Another recent speculation is that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy.

The Milky Way contains both the so-called type I stars, brilliant, blue stars; and type II stars, giant red stars (see Star). The central Milky Way and the halo are composed of the type II population. Most of this region is obscured behind dust clouds, which prevent visual observation. Radiation from the central region has been recorded by use of such special devices as photoelectric cells, infrared filters, and radio telescopes. Such studies indicate compact objects near the galactic center, possibly starburst remnants or a massive black hole. The center of the galaxy is home to clouds of antimatter particles, which reveal themselves by emitting gamma rays when they meet particles of matter and annihilate. Astronomers believe the antimatter particles provide more evidence for a massive black hole at the Milky Way’s center. In 1998 astronomers observed 20 stars near the center racing around it at up to 5 million km/hr (3 million mph)—ten times the speed of typical stars—which suggests that they are orbiting a black hole.

Surrounding the central region is a fairly flat disk comprising stars of both type II and type I; the brightest members of the latter category are luminous, blue supergiants. Imbedded in the disk, and emerging from opposite sides of the central region, are the spiral arms, which contain a majority of the type I population together with much interstellar dust and gas. One arm passes in the vicinity of the Sun and includes the great nebula in Orion.

[ورد جوري]

تسلم يدج على البحوث

وعساج على القوة

[بحرينيه كوول]

يقوييج اختي

ومشكوورة على المرور والتواصل

[um_ kisha]

تسلميين حبيبتي
بس بغيت انج 202 اذا تقدرين

[بحرينيه كوول]

الله يسلمج حبيبتي

بس ياريت تقولين لي شنو المواضيع بالضبط ..

http://0l0l.com/uploads/b27788802f.gif

[CheckMate]

يعطيج الف عافيه اختي
ويزاج الله كل خير
تحياتي

[بحرينيه كوول]

تسلم اخووي

http://0l0l.com/uploads/965ee50337.gif

[CheckMate]

مشكووورة اختي ويعطيج الف عافيه

[بحرينيه كوول]

الله يعافييك اخووي

ومشكووور على المرور الرد

[أم الزين]

السلام عليكم
لو سمحتي ابي بحث عن النقود او الحياة في الفضاء بحث مش تقرير يعني اقل شيء 4صفحات و الله بعطيك العافيه
اتمنى احصل عليه بسرعه و في رساله خاصه

[منورة شطورة]

ابـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــي للأنج 101

About Relaxing Plzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

[منورة شطورة]

ابـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــي للأنج 101

About Relaxing Plzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

[منورة شطورة]

ابـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــي للأنج 101

About Relaxing Plzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz


بليييييييييييز عااااااااااد ساعدوووووووووني>>>تحصلون اجر>>>

[мs.Ƭσтσ]

رووعه البحوث
تسلمين كوولوو